Supply Chain Drivers

Logistics Drivers Facilities These are physical locations where merchandise is stored, assembled or manufactured. Two major types of facilities are production sites and storage sites. Decisions regarding the role, location, capacity, and flexibility of facilities have a significant impact on the supply chain’s performance. Facilities related metrics include; capacity, utilisation, cycle time of production, cycle time, flow time efficiency, product variety, processing/setup/down/idle time, average production batch size, and production service level.Inventory This includes all unprocessed material, raw materials being processed and completed merchandise. Change in inventory policies can alter the supply chain performance. For instance, a stationery shop can be responsive by stocking large amounts of stationery and satisfy customer demand from stock. However, a large inventory increases costs, rendering it less efficient. Stock reduction would make it more efficient but less resp onsive.Inventory related metrics include; average inventory, products with more than a specified number of days of inventory, average replenishment batch size, average safety inventory, seasonal inventory, fill rate, and fraction of time out of stock. Transportation Transportation involves moving inventory from one supply chain location to another. Transportation can take form with different combination of modes and routes, each with its own performance characteristic.Transportation related metrics include; average inbound and outbound transportation cost, average incoming and outbound shipment size, average inbound and outbound transportation cost per shipment and fraction transported by mode. ? Cross-Functional drivers Information This consists of data and analysis concerning all other drivers, that is, facilities, inventory, transportation, pricing and customers.It is arguably the biggest supply chain driver as it directly affects each of the other drivers. Timely and accurate in formation will enhance coordination and better decision making. Information related metrics include; forecast horizon, frequency of update, forecast error, seasonal factors, variance from plan, and ratio of demand variability to order variability. SourcingSourcing involves choosing partners to perform a particular supply chain activity such as production, transportation, storage, or management of information. This decision variable establishes functions that a company may undertake and those that it may outsource. Sourcing related metrics include; days payable outstanding, average purchase date, range of purchase price, average purchase quantity, fraction on-time deliveries, supply quality, and supply lead time.Pricing Pricing determines the amount a company will charge for goods and services offers in the supply chain. Pricing affects the behaviour of the customer buying a product or accessing a service, thus affecting supply chain performance. Pricing related metrics include; prof it margin , days sales outstanding, incremental fixed cost per order, incremental variable cost per unit, average sale price, average order size, range of sale price, and range of periodic sales.

Hinduism Architecture

Hinduism Architecture Hinduism is a predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. It begins simply by differentiating between matter and spirit and the theology of the religion is based upon three main truths, God, Matter and Soul (Richard Blurter, 1992). It is also a conglomeration of intellectual and philosophical points of view, rather than inelastic common sets of beliefs. Hinduism believes in the real self which is called the â€Å"ATM† is distinct from the temporary body made of matter or â€Å"Portrait† ( Richard Blurter, 1992).Hinduism dates back to the early Harpoon period (5500-BECAME) and its life and practices during the pre-classical era are known as the Historical Vivid religion. Many Hindu ideas and thoughts are greatly reflected in the Hindu architecture. Hindu architecture bear witness to the strong spirituality of India. Hindu architecture is known as Vast Shasta. In Sanskrit the word â€Å"vast† meaner a building or structure and so the expr ession â€Å"vast Shasta† is the science of structure (Raja Kumar 2003).Hindu Architecture addresses two kinds of buildings, religious structures including temples and shrines and non-religious structures including civic buildings and residential homes (Raja Kumar, 2003). It is believed that astrology plays an important part in Hinduism theology and also Hinduism architecture and follows three principles. The first is the idea that the world is the body of God. A sacred structure such as a temple is designed to be not Just the home of God, but the actual body of God. The second principle concerns the relationship between the macrocosm and the microcosm where the temple is compared to the large universe.The third principle teaches that the part always contains within itself he whole. The design of a building should align with the universe so that we control the forces of the universe within that building (Villainies, 2009). The Hindu temples are designed to represent a cosmic mountain that serves as the earthly residence of the cosmic deities. Hindu traditions tell us that there are forces, some subtle and others not so subtle, some positive and some negative, around us at all times and it is in our interest to take full advantage of these positive forces and avoid the negative forces (Villainies, 2009).The architecture of the temples represents he faith's complex cosmology, with sanctuary walls accommodating statues, sacred emblems and myths of Hindu pantheon. In Hinduism the temple is a central element in all aspects of everyday life. It is significant not only for religious activities but also for elements of culture, society and education. The temples do not contain large internal spaces, they are tabernacles preceded by halls used for rituals, and music and dance since the architecture of the temples are the expression of faith (Raja Kumar, 2003).The Hindu temple is considered the centre of intellectual, artistic, virtual, educational and social ele ments of daily life. Furthermore, the temple is a place where God may be approached and where divine knowledge can be discovered therefore, the temple is designed to dissolve the boundaries between man and the divine. Hindu architecture combines harmony and symmetry with a high degree of outer adornment. Elements are designed to have correct proportions and exert a positive influence on their surroundings.The reason what makes the architecture so beautiful is the small details that harmonize and mix with the colossal architecture. The architectural plans are based on â€Å"wants† which is the diagrams of the universe. It is a circle within a square, within a rectangle, with four gates to represent the four directions of the universe. At the center of the temple is the sanctuary, where an image or symbol of the temple deity is kept. Many temples sit on top of a cruciform platform, with a tall spire called â€Å"sierras† ( Richard Blurter, 1992).They are usually set on p latforms, with stairways connecting different levels. Large temples sometimes have separate buildings for meditation halls, offices and other purposes, and elaborate porches. Hindu temples typically consist of a prayer hall called a â€Å"mandate† and a sanctuary or central shrine called a â€Å"agoraphobia† (Richard Blurter, 1992). The sanctuary contains an icon of the Hindu deity. The focus of a temple is the inner sanctum, which sits on elevated platform below the central tower. It is the most sacred part of the temple and symbolizes a womb.Most temples have an outer wall with gates or â€Å"asparagus† that represents the four directions of the universe and are considered thresholds between the universe and the outer world. The gates are usually protected by sculpted warriors and sometimes river goddesses (Richard Blurter, 1992). The main gate is on the auspicious east side. The west is considered inauspicious and associated with death. The north is linked wi th elephants, which are valued because of their strength. The south is considered neutral. Non-religious architecture always begins by laying the cosmic body of God or â€Å"Pursues† over every building site or â€Å"Mandela†.The cosmic body is positioned in relation to the site. The head of God lies in the northeast corner because it is lived that sun equals light which equals knowledge and that Fourth more equals consciousness and ultimately spiritual enlightenment (Villainies, 2009). The east is the source of light and the north-east point is the most important because it is the point of minimization of light. The south-west corner, which is the exact opposite of the north-east corner is not considered an auspicious place and so when arranging a home one should avoid placing the meditation, kitchen or offices in this place.

2009 U.S. Supreme Court decision on Arizona V. Gant Research Paper

2009 U.S. Supreme Court decision on Arizona V. Gant - Research Paper Example This paper provides an analysis on this ruling and the impacts it has on law enforcement practices. The opinion of the court in Arizona vs. Gant ruling was delivered by Justice Stevens. This ruling followed the arrest of Gant after he was found guilty of driving with a suspended driving license. During the arrest, Gant was handcuffed and restrained in the patrol car. The arresting officers went on to search in Gant’s vehicle compartments, where they discovered a gun and cocaine in Gant’s jacket. The question, which formed the basis for argument during the trial, was whether the search was relevant in relation to the warrant of arrest that had been issued by the US security officers. According to the Arizona Supreme Court, circumstances surrounding Gant’s arrest did not qualify officers to conduct a search in his vehicle (Farb, 2009). In order to make a ruling, the Supreme Court revisited Chimel vs. California and New York vs. Belton rulings. The Chimelvs California ruling authorized security officers to make searches on the arrestee and areas close to the arrestee. These searches are authorized during incidents to arrest, and the essence of searching areas immediate to the arrestee is to get hold of weapons and destructible evidence. In the Belton ruling, arresting officers were given the authority to make searches in vehicle compartments and containers within the vehicle. However, searches were limited to lawful arrests and incidents to arrest (Farb, 2009). One notable thing in Belton ruling is that the arresting officers were given the authority to conduct searches, even when the arrestee is handcuffed and restrained in the officer’s vehicle. On the other hand, Chimel’s ruling allowed for a search only when the arrestee is not handcuffed and is close to the vehicle during the search. In these two scenarios, the court was in disagreement with Belton ruling, but took into consideration Chimel’s ruling in making its

The Equity of Water Distribution Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Equity of Water Distribution - Assignment Example In 1998, Houston’s water customers consume 1.35 million cubic meters of water per day. The former maximum daily pumpage, recorded in July of 1986, was 1.79 million cubic meters per day. More recently, however, Houston had pumped an all-time record high of 1.96 million cubic meters per day, during the heat wave in 1998. Houston uses water for retail consumption, irrigation, and industrial purposes. Presently, long dry spells have necessitated conservation efforts to extend available water supply. For the Sugar Land area, to reduce peak demand and total water consumption, Sugar Land residents are asked to water lawns according to the following schedule: Surat is located at the mouth of the river in floodplains and during the monsoon season, it is the site of the concentration of water flow. Water is used for agriculture, drinking, water supply industries and energy generation. Its water supply is provided by the Ukai dam, which, save for the annual lean season, is not short of supply due to the annual monsoon that brings heavy rainfall and flooding (Bhat, 2011). Recently the Maranoa Regional Council introduced a new water pricing system for residential and business customers. The new consumption based system calls for the payment of a fixed service fee for ongoing connection, to which is added a charge for every kilolitre of water used. However, the Council has excluded Surat from the new pricing system; instead, the residents and business will be allocated an annual volume for use, with the excess charge to apply only for the use of additional kilolitres over the allocation. The system is designed to cover the higher fixed costs of operating Surat’s dual reticulation system and river water treatment process. The higher cost of treatment is due to the fact that Surat’s water is drawn from the Balonne river instead of a bore, requiring a more expensive method of treatment.

What causes structural unemployment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

What causes structural unemployment - Essay Example In most cases, unemployment occurs when the economy in the recession. Globally, more than 200 million people are unemployed which is equivalent to 6% of the global workforce. There are different types of unemployment. These include classical unemployment, cyclical unemployment, structural unemployment, frictional unemployment and hidden unemployment. This paper seeks to discuss about the causes of structural unemployment as well as the ways of dealing with this kind of unemployment. Structural unemployment is defined as a type of unemployment whereby at a given wage level, the labour demanded is lower that the labor supplied. This happens when there is a mismatch between the number of jobs available in the economy and the number of people who are willing to work (Romer, 2011). The mismatch may occur if the unemployed individuals lack the necessary skills as needed by the organizations or they may be residing in different parts of the country far from where the job opportunities are available. Being one of the permanent types of unemployment, most economists argue that improvement on causes of structural unemployment can only take place in the long run. Based on the changing level of technology and obsolescence of certain technology, some experts and systems become of less importance (Ford, 2009). For example, with the emergence of modern forms of printing by use of computers, the use typesetters became insignificance. Another scenario of structural unemployment can be indicated when the economy experience an increase in the level efficiency. In most cases, when any of the economy sectors has high level of efficiency, the number of workers required goes down. For example, by mechanizing the work in the agricultural sector, few employees are needed to carry out the duties in the sector. This implies that some individuals who have qualification in agricultural related

Understanding of the importance of literary techniques Essay - 1

Understanding of the importance of literary techniques - Essay Example Robert Browning is a master craftsman when it comes to the use of dramatic monologues in his poems. The Dramatic monologue is defined as â€Å"a literary, usually verse composition in which a speaker reveals his or her character, often in relation to a critical situation or event, in a monologue addressed to the reader or to a presumed listener† (Dramatic Monologue-Definition of Dramatic Monologue). Browning’s "My Last Duchess" possesses all these criteria of a dramatic monologue. The speaker in the poem is not the poet himself. In fact, Browning’s speaker in the poem represents a ‘psychological portrait of a powerful Renaissance aristocrat’ (Duke Ferrara) and the poem very well draws, in the minds of the readers, the image of a submissive presumed listener who pays heed to the Duke’s narration of the failings and imperfections of his late wife (My Last Duchess: Introduction). However, the reader can perceive from the dramatic monologue that t he so-called imperfections of the dutches are nothing but expressions of her virtues and her courtesy towards her servants. The very opening lines of the poem are quite suggestive. The lines, â€Å"Thats my last duchess painted on the wall, / Looking as if she were alive† clearly demonstrates the presence of an unseen audience or listener and the reader understands that the duchess is no longer alive. Similarly, towards the end of the poem, when the Duke states that â€Å"This grew; I gave commands;/Then all smiles stopped together† the reader grasps that it was he who ordered her murder. The actual character of the Duke is thus revealed through the dramatic monologue even when the listener remains absolutely silent. Thus, the poem’s elements of soliloquy (as there is only one speaker) and its dramatic, and lyrical qualities make it a perfect example for dramatic monologue and it is the effective use of dramatic monologue that offer new dimension to the theme an d treatment of

IFRS - Exam Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

IFRS - Exam - Assignment Example It is similar to the inventorys lower of cost or market concept in this model, impairment is debited as expense. iii) The revaluation model on the other hand requires that asset is taken at its raised amount which is its fair value at the time of revaluation and then subtract depreciation and impairment of the asset. For instance, if a revaluation results in rise in value of an asset, it should be credited to equity. iv) The identifiability of intangible assets concept requires an intangible asset be taken as a recognizable non-monetary asset that lacks physical substance and has the capacity to bring in economic benefits in the future. For instance, trademarks and copyrights. v) The control of intangible assets requires that the ownerships of intangible assets uses them to reap economic benefits in the future. For instance, copyrights protect original from adaptation without permission. Trademarks on the other hand represent brands which are legally protected. vi) Future economic benefits from intangible assets entails all the advantages accrued to a business due to intangible assets. For instance, copyrights prevent adaptation of original works and compositions to prevent others from benefitting illegally thereby bringing benefits in the

Australian Security in the 21st Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Australian Security in the 21st Century - Essay Example in East Asia must not only be capable of deterring a North Korean attack or a Chinese lunge across the Taiwan Strait, they must support the war on Islamic fundamentalist terror in Southeast and South Asia".2 In addition, China's role as a major world power, and its welcomed economic contribution, needs to be balanced against its military ambitions and intentions. Realist theorists have postulated the possibility that "the accompanying relative loss of power of the USA, and the possible decline in the importance of European nation states will lead to a renaissance in the power rivalries of great actors and possibly even to violent conflicts".3 All of these issues require a great deal of international cooperation and a series of evolving multilateral agreements. The need for a multilateral security umbrella for Asia, Australia, and the US has been hindered by history, tradition, and the current political and economic climate. Currently, most security concerns are constructed as bilateral agreements between the US and the interested country. Historically, the US has acted as a hub with a number of bilateral spokes, whose participation comes about through their interaction with the US. The history of Australia and Japan still lingers from the remnants of World War II and had created some issues of trust and cooperation. According Jain, "Until the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s, most links between Australia and Japan that concerned national security were largely indirect (via the United States, through the US/Japan Security Treaty and the ANZUS alliance)".4 In addition, Australia receives a tepid welcome from ASEAN where it remains isolated as a dialogue member. The North Korean threat has been made more difficult by the popularity of t he Korean unification agenda... Australian Security in the 21st Century Its European ties and Western culture operates in the shadow of China's economic influence and the US hegemonic military might. Asia needs the defence force of the US, but has numerous internal and external tensions that make multilateral security agreements temporary and tenuous at best. As we move into the 21st century, the US will continue to provide a significant security presence in Asia, while Australia, faced with a rapidly changing political and economic landscape, will need to rely on an ever-changing series of ad-hoc multilateral security arrangements. The end of the Cold War finalized the polarized concept of two super powers with strict allegiances across the globe, and ushered in a new wave of security concerns that demand multilateralism. While the US is currently perceived as a hegemonic power, the nature of a global national security has diluted the resources of the US with their wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The new threats to Asian security are terrorism, nuclear proliferation and the Korean issue, drug smuggling, piracy on the seas, illegal movement of immigrants and populations, and the looming threats of the ambitions of India and China. No nation in the region can afford to create hostilities with China, and the concerns of North Korea and Taiwan must be handed with diplomatic care and steadfast commitment. Australia, led by the US military, will continue to court China as it is drawn into the Asian Community.

Student Learning Methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Student Learning Methods - Essay Example Learner-centered learning environments are founded on the principal that learning is an active process. Learning is an interaction between the student and text, involving the activation of prior knowledge and relating new ideas to preexisting schemata. Based on this paradigm learner-centered environments engage the student both personally and intellectually and provide the best method for meeting the needs of all learners. In teacher-centered learning environments, the more traditional and widespread approach, the teacher is viewed as the focal point and leader of learning. The teacher is the authority, leaving the students in the passive role as receivers of knowledge, rather than active constructors of that knowledge. That knowledge is finite and discrete. In teacher-centered learning the lessons are instructionally driven, leaving the students unengaged intellectually and emotionally. These traditional methods include memorization, completing worksheets, reading a text and answering predetermined questions - demonstrating knowledge of the "right" answer. In this form of learning there is limited activation of prior knowledge, and therefore students struggle to create personally significant meaning. This is because in teacher-centered learning the background, values and interests of the learner are nonexistent. The student is passively filled in with information, rather than engaged in his own learning process. Learning environments are controlled, organized and with an emphasis on independent seatwork. Lessons, classwork and homework are results-driven. This unresponsive and static approach also fails to meet the needs of special needs populations, because lesson goals and objectives are standardized, meaning students must adapt to t he methods oftentimes with some students unable to engage the teacher's attention to meet their needs. Assessment One of the most significant challenges in teacher-centered learning is in assessment. Using traditional methods such as standardized tests rather than qualitative measures, teacher-centered learning places the emphasis on performance and repetition of facts. It leaves little room for students to construct their own meaning based on their own experiences, cultural background, values and interests. This causes a mismatch between goals and assessment. For this reason, many times students can appear to understand material in one format, yet in another appear unsuccessful during assessments because of the focus on success rather than on learning. Characteristics of Learner-Centered Environments Theoretical Basis In learner-centered environments the student becomes the actor in his own learning, and therefore the teacher becomes the facilitator to that learning by designing learning activities which actively engage the learner. This is based on the theory that all know- ledge is organized in schemata - the underlying connections that allow new experiences and information to be aligned with previous knowledge (Landry, 2002). Activities: Engaging and Adaptive As the designer of lessons rather than an authority, and with the understanding that Students exhibit various strengths and weaknesses in learning styles and modalities, the teacher's role is to create activities which are varied and engage these differences, rather than repress

SPECIAL EVENT PART 2 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

SPECIAL EVENT PART 2 - Coursework Example Even though the police had a right to maintain law and order in Miami Beach during the festive season, they have no right to arrest people who are trying to find out why their friends have been arrested. The police also needed to be sensitive to the fact that the visitors to the city had come from different States with different cultures. These visitors were therefore inclined to engage in behaviors that were weird and strange to other people. Such should not attract arrests but only a warning. I think that the police had directives from the Police chief to make a certain number of arrests to show that they were really working hard. This is the reason why they ended up arresting anyone whom they thought was breaking the law, which in some circumstances did not exist. An example is there was not law outlawing arguing with friends after having a drink. But the police interpreted this as a sign of misdemeanors. What the police department does is to come up with stringent laws that they do not expect to be followed by hundreds of become who have come down the beach to have fun. Someone would not expect that laws such as drinking, loud music, or even prohibiting littering will be adhered to people especially the youth who are coming down to lay their stress. â€Å"Increasing the number of arrests is yet another way they have tried to control the rowdy people that come down for the weekend. They enforce laws such as open containers, illegal parking, and loud music†. This seems to be their motto. I think what the Miami Beach police does is to deliberately come up with laws that they know very well that it is difficult to adhere to especially with a crowded and excited

Fossil Essay Example for Free

Fossil Essay Kosta had noted the recent success of Swatch fashion watches and was aware that watches and other goods could be imported from the Far East at very low cost. On a visit to Hong Kong, Tom studied a number of potential products for import including toys and stuffed animals before following Kosta’s advice and returned to the U. S. to develop a watch import business. Enlisting the aid of two friends, Lynne Stafford for her sense of design and Alan Moore who had a master’s degree in accounting, he invested his savings of $200,000 to found Fossil as a Texas corporation in 1984. Fossil’s initial purchase of watches from a Hong Kong manufacturer included some retro and jumbo designs that Macy’s thought were â€Å"hot,† and significant orders followed. A design staff was developed that included watch buyers from retail chains. Inspiration came from many sources. , however: the strongest was â€Å"retro† themes from the 1940’s and 50’s. Designers paged through magazines from this era, including Life, Look, and Time, and visited flea markets searching for old watches. Between 1987 and 1989 sales grew from $2 million to $20 million, assisted by liberal credit from the Hong Kong manufacturers of Fossil watches. One sector included conservatively styled time pieces including brands such as Citizen and Seiko. The second sector included products designed to reflect emerging fashion trends and included Swatch, Guess? , Anne Klein and Anne Klein II, and Fossil. This segment was fueled by fashion-conscious consumers who considered watches as fashion accessories and often owned multiple watches. Branded fashion watch sales were estimated to represent approximately $400 million in retail sales in 1990. Major Competitors Fossil’s major competitors were Swatch and Guess?. Although market share data were difficult to obtain, it was generally believed that Fossil and Guess? had nearly equal market shares and that Swatch had slipped to third in recent months. Numerous other considerably smaller competitors existed including Anne Klein, Anne Klein II, and Gucci. Swatch Although quartz watch technology had been developed in Switzerland, by the late 1970’s the Japanese companies’ Seiko, Citizen, and Casio and the United States’ firm Texas Instruments exploited production improvements and economies of scale to drive prices down. Strategic use of the manufacturing experience curve led to an oversupply of quartz watch movements and a severe price war. Many competitors were driven out of business with Casio, Hong Kong producers, and a few other firms surviving in mass market watches, and Seiko and Citizen in the moderately priced segment. The Swiss watch industry was under severe attack at the low and mid price points, and both unemployment and losses on bank loans were increasing. In 1978, the Swiss government agreed to provide up to one-third of the costs or a maximum of Sfr. 5 million for a venture of the leading watch manufacturers to develop a Swiss electronic watch program. Additional financing was supplied by banks, who wrote off existing loans and provided hundreds of millions of francs of new capital, and a group of investors who paid $100 million (Sfr 151 at the time) for a 51 percent share. The consulting firm of Hayek Engineering was hired to lead the effort to revive the lower-priced segment. This venture produced a number of new patents and developed both new watch and watch manufacturing technologies, along with the ability to design and manufacture watches efficiently at low cost. The resulting firm, Swiss Corporation for Microelectronics and Watchmaking (SMH) included the existing brands Omega, Longines, Tissot, and Rado in the moderate and fine watch segments. N. Hayek and E. Thomke led efforts in the low priced segments that resulted in the Swatch manufactured by SMH’s ETA division. Development of the Swatch began in 1980, resulting in a product launch in 1983. The manufacturing process was highly automated using robots and computers in the manufacturing and assembly processes. The watch had been designed with only 51 parts, instead of the usual 90 to 150 parts in other watches, had an ex-factory price of Sfr15. Parts were injected directly into the plastic case which was sealed by ultrasonic welding. This process was highly capital intensive, leading to direct labor costs of less than ten percent of total costs. The manufacturing process permitted a wide variety of dials, cases, and straps: however, variations in the shape and size of the watch case were quite difficult. One plant could produce up to 35,000 watches a day. Swatch was test marketed in the United States in December 1982 at 100 Sanger Harris department stores in Dallas, Salt Lake City, and San Diego without any advertising or public relations. Although consumer reactions were mixed, Swatch was officially launched in Switzerland in March 1983, followed by a gradual worldwide release. A second U. S. test market in December 1983 through the Zale jewelry chain and Macy’s was not successful. Swatch made extensive adjustments throughout their marketing program, and by 1985, U. S. sales accelerated. In 1986, a worldwide single price of $30 for most models was set and sales accumulated to over 50 million units worldwide by 1988. The 100 millionth Swatch was sold in 1993, when the price of a basic Swatch was $40. In 1992, SMH had combined sales for all brands of $2. 1 billion, producing $286 million in profits and a market equity value exceeding $3. 5 billion. Banks had encouraged Nicholas Hayek to assume a 20 percent equity ownership in the mid-80’s, a successful arrangement for both. Fifteen thousand employees worked in plants in Switzerland and Thailand producing semi-conductors, watches, movements, batteries, and straps. Guess? In 1983, Philip â€Å"Mickey† Callanen acquired the worldwide license to manufacture and market watches with the Guess? name. Investing $40,000 of his personal funds, he opened business in his garage, sourced watches from Hong Kong, and shipped for the 1983 Christmas season. Growth continued through the 1980’s at over 20 percent annually. In 1991, Callanen Company was acquired by Timex, expanding distribution to Japan, Australia, France, England, Germany and Canada and providing Callanen an additional source of watch technologies such as Indiglo dial illumination. In 1993 Callanen marketed both Guess? watches for men and women and Monet watches for women. Guess? represented 85 percent of the $80 million shipments (3 million watches) in 1992. The Guess? product line included 250 to 300 styles including classic, fashion, sporty, multi-function, chronograph, novelty, and metal bracelet watches. About 20 percent of the product line was revised seasonally four times a year. Guess? watches had a suggested retail price between $42 and $115, using department stores as the major retail outlet. Fifteen percent of Guess? sales were in international markets. Additional products included watch bands and private label watches for Disney, Hard Rock Cafe, Limited Express, Macy’s, and others. Virtually all Guess? watches were designed and manufactured at Guess? ’s partly owned manufacturing facility in Hong Kong. The 270 employees included a design staff of 19. Callanen’s business offices, warehouse, and watch repair facility were located in Norwalk, Connecticut, and they had a showroom in New York City. Manufacturing and Sourcing About two million, or eighty-five percent of fine watches sold worldwide, were manufactured in Switzerland in 1988, making Switzerland the largest value producer with sales of $4. 9 billion (96 million watches) in 1990. Most other watches were manufactured in the Far East, with the major exception of Swatch, which was manufactured in a highly automated factory in Switzerland. The development of the Swatch and its robotic factory was credited with saving the Swiss watch industry. Japan was the world’s largest producer in terms of units, with 325 million units, representing 44 percent of the world’s production in 1990. Hong Kong, relying on assembly by hand, produced 175 million watches in 1990, and was expected to produce 340 million, or one-third of the world’s watches in 1993 (Table 6). Due to Hong Kong’s focus on low-priced watches, this represented only nine percent of the total value of watches produced. Fossil chose to assemble watches in Hong Kong, using components from Japan, China, Taiwan, Italy, and Korea. FOSSIL IN 1993 Business Strategy Fossil’s initial public offering prospectus defined their business strategy as: â€Å"Brand Development. The Company has established the FOSSIL brand name and image to reflect a theme of fun, fashion, and humor, and believes that the FOSSIL brand name has achieved growing acceptance among fashion-conscious consumers in its target markets. Product Value. The Company’s products provide value by offering quality components and features at moderate prices. For example, the Company’s FOSSIL watches, which offer features such as raised indexes, enamel, textured, shell or semi-precious stone dials, gold electroplating, and fine leather straps, are sold at an average retail price of $63. Likewise, the Company’s RELIC watches, which incorporate a number of features offered in FOSSIL watches, are sold at an average retail price of $42. Fashion Orientation. The Company ifferentiates its products from those of its competitors principally through innovations in fashion details, including variations in the treatment of watch dials, crystals, cases, and straps for the Company’s watches and trimming, lining, and straps for its handbags. Expansion of International Business. The Company is seeking to achieve further growth in its international business through the establishment of a joint venture to operate a European distribution center, the establishment of a branch office in Canada, and the recruitment of new distributors in selected international markets. Introduction of New Product Categories. The Company may leverage its design and marketing expertise to expand the scope of its product offerings through the introduction of new categories of fashion accessories that would complement its existing products. Active Management of Retail Sales. The Company manages the retail sales process by carefully monitoring its customers’ sales and inventories by product category and style and by assisting in the conception, development, and implementation of their marketing program. As a result, the Company believes it enjoys close relationships with its principal customers, often allowing it to influence the mix, quality, and timing of their purchasing decisions. Close Relationships with Manufacturing Sources. The Company has established and maintains close relationships with a number of watch manufacturers located in Hong Kong. The Company believes that these relationships allow it to quickly and efficiently introduce innovative product designs and alter production in response to the retail performance of its products. Coordinated Product Promotion. The Company coordinates product design, packaging, and advertising functions in order to communicate in a cohesive manner to its target markets the themes and images it associates with its products. Personnel Development. The Company actively seeks to recruit and train its design, advertising, sales, and marketing personnel to assist it in achieving further growth in its existing businesses and in expanding the scope of its product offerings. Cost Advantages. Because the Company does not pay royalties on products sold under the FOSSIL and RELIC brand names and because of cost savings associated with the location of its headquarters and warehousing and distribution center in Dallas, Texas, the Company believes that it enjoys certain cost advantages which enhance its ability to achieve attractive profit margins. Centralized Distribution. Substantially all of the Company’s products are distributed from its warehousing and distribution center located in Dallas. The Company believes that its distribution capabilities enable it to reduce inventory risk and increase its flexibility in meeting the delivery requirement of its customers. (Fossil, 1993, 23-24) Manufacturing Fossil East, a 35 employee subsidiary of Fossil (owning 20 percent interest), acted as Fossil’s exclusive agent, buying all of Fossil’s watches from approximately 20 factories located in Hong Kong. In 1992, about 21 percent of these watches were purchased from Pulse Time, a Hong Kong corporation in which Fossil held a minority interest. Three other factories each accounted for more than 10 percent of Fossil’s watches. The company felt that developing long-term relations with suppliers was essential to its success. While the loss of any single manufacturer could disrupt shipments of certain watch styles, it would not impact their overall marketing program. Leather goods were manufactured in 12 factories located in Brazil, China, Hong Kong, Korea, Taiwan, and Uruguay. Fossil believed â€Å"that its policy of outsourcing products allows it to achieve increased production flexibility while avoiding significant capital expenditures, build-ups of work-in-process inventory, and the costs of managing a substantial production work force† (Fossil, 1993, 27). Products Fossil’s flagship products were the Fossil watches introduced as a brand in 1986. Handbags were introduced in 1991 as the first entry into the leather goods market. Watch Products Watches represented 98. 1, 96. 4, and 92. 5 percent of sales in the years 1990, 1991, and 1992 respectively. Following the Fossil brand, Fossil introduced the Relic brand, Fossil watch straps, and private label products. FOSSIL Watches: Fossil states its â€Å"watches are targeted at middle and upper income consumers between the ages of 16 and 40 and are sold at retail prices generally ranging from $45 to $110, with an average price of $63† (Fossil, 1993, 25). RELIC Watches: The Relic brand shared many of the features found in Fossil watches but in a format suitable for lower priced fashion watches. Relic watches â€Å"are targeted at lower and middle income consumers and are sold at retail prices generally ranging from $40 to $50, with an average price of $42. † Fossil Watch Straps: Watch straps were targeted at customers who bought Fossil watches; however, they could be used with a wide variety of watches. They were priced from $13 to $15. Private Label Products: Fossil provided private label watches for retailers and other customers. Leather Goods Following the introduction of Fossil handbags in 1991, small leather goods such as coin purses, key chains, personal organizers, wallets, and belts for women were introduced in 1992, accounting for about five percent of sales in 1992. The handbags emphasized classic styles and creative designs, including a tan and black binocular bag, a green and tan drawstring sac, and a natural color military ammunition pouch retailing from $48 to $130, with an average price of $87. Fossil felt that since women’s leather goods tended to be located near women’s watches in department and specialty stores, purchase of one Fossil product might lead to another. They also felt that they were price competitive. Design and Development The design staff sought to â€Å"differentiate its products from those of its competition principally by incorporating innovations in fashion details into its product designs. † These included variations in the treatment of dials, crystals, cases, and straps for the company’s watches and trimming, lining, and straps for handbags (Fossil 1993, 26). Fossil’s watch lines included Airmaster, Casual, Chronograph, Dress, Limited Edition, Pyramid, Crystal, Skeleton, and Vintage watches. About 500 different styles were available at any given time, with new designs offered five times a year. Over 1,000 models were available in 1992. Design prototypes of watches were created in Hong Kong in as little as a week, and lead-time from committing orders to shipment ranged from two to three months. Fossil believed that its close relationships with manufacturers gave it a competitive advantage in quickly introducing innovative product designs. Promotion Fossil made use of an in-house advertising department for design and execution of packaging, advertising, and sales promotions. Company executives felt that extensive use of computer-aided design reduced time and encouraged greater creativity in developing these programs. The company’s stated advertising themes â€Å"aim at evoking nostalgia for the simpler values and more optimistic outlook of the 1950’s through the use of images of cars, trains, airliners, and consumer products that reflect the classic American tastes of the period. These images are carefully coordinated in order to convey the flair for fun, fashion, and humor which the Company associates with its products† (Fossil, 1993, 28). A sundial watch sold over 250,000 pieces at a retail price of $16. Fossil developed cooperative advertising programs with major retail customers and developed in-store visual support through its packaging, signs, and fixtures. Consumers were offered promotional items, including unique tin boxes as watch packaging, T-shirts, caps, and pens. In ten locations, Fossil opened a â€Å"shop-in-shop† format including a wide variety of Fossil products and promotional materials. With greater emphasis on product design, retailer relations, and promotion, Fossil conducted advertising limited to spot television in local markets since 1989, national spots since 1991, outdoor advertising in four markets, and occasional ads in Elle, Mademoiselle, Vogue, and Seventeen. Distribution and Sales Force The majority of Fossil’s products were shipped to its warehouse and distribution center in Dallas. A significant number were bar coded prior to shipment for entry into a computerized inventory control system, which enabled Fossil to track each item from receipt to its ultimate sale. Products were distributed to approximately 12,000 retail locations in the United States including department stores and specialty retail stores. In 1991 and 1992, department stores accounted for about 67 percent of net sales. (Table 8 provides data on watch distribution by price and retail channel. ) Fossil’s ten largest customers accounted for 40 percent of sales. The largest customers were Dillard’s and the May Company, each accounting for from ten to thirteen percent of sales. Other principal customers included Carter Hawley Hale Stores, Dayton Hudson, Federated Department Stores, JCPenney, Macy’s, Nordstrom, and Service Merchandise. Although the industry typically used independent sales representatives, Fossil made use of 25 in-house sales and customer service employees and 12 independent sales representatives. In-house personnel received a salary while independent sales reps worked on a commission basis and did not represent competing product lines. International sales in 1990, 1991, and 1992 were 5. 6, 7. 2, and 8. 1 percent of net sales, respectively. Sixteen independent distributors operated in Europe, South and Central America, Africa, and Australia. These distributors resold watches to department stores and specialty retail stores. Fossil received payment in U. S. dollars based on a uniform price schedule. Financial Strategy Fossil had started out as a â€Å"bootstrap† financed firm. Personal income and savings from Tom Kartsotis’ ticket-brokering business had provided the initial capital for the operation, and the company had further financed operations by the creative use of trade credit and bank loans. With sales growing rapidly, Fossil’s expansion needs exceeded what it could raise internally. To sustain sales growth, Fossil needed a substantial increase in working capital. Fossil’s ability to continue to fund itself with debt capital, given their exposure to volatility in the fashion product market, was questionable. An initial public stock offering (IPO) which would provide access to capital needed to expand Fossil’s working capital base and fund additional sales growth, was managed by Montgomery Securities of San Francisco. While not uncommon, IPO’s of less than $20 MM involved transaction costs that many viewed as being too high to justify the offering. A critical decision that needed to be made was what proportion of the ownership should be issued.

Human sexuality Essay Example for Free

Human sexuality Essay Incestuous inbreeding is the act of mating or having any sexual relations between two beings of close kinship. In people, this is prohibited by law to marry and engage in any sexual activity with any member of a person’s own family and with his/her relatives up to the second degree of consanguinity. Aside from it being a legal prohibition, it is also a considered a social taboo in most cultures. However, the considerations for incest are different depending on the beliefs and customs of these cultural groups. Some have more liberal qualifications for the situation to be called incest, and others are more conservative in the sense that people could not marry even those who are adopted into the family. Nevertheless, there are also some places wherein they permit this kind of familial setup to preserve their royal lineage. There are various kinds and forms of incest. The most common and considered a kind of abuse is the father-daughter incest and other forms of parental incest. However, there are also other forms such as sibling incest and other matches which usually come unreported. Although most cases of incest are born out of coercion, consensual incest also exists in some societies. The rationale behind the incest taboo must have stemmed from social group processes in ancient civilized and uncivilized societies. As studied by anthropologists, older cultures follow the rule of exogamy which enables families and groups to merge with others to form alliances. If incest was allowed, this rule would be violated. Religious groups and sects also have their various takes on this issue and most of them push that incest must not be tolerated and patronized. In modern societies, this legal prohibition now has scientific basis. It was found that since the two people involved in incestuous inbreeding have the same genetic makeup, their offspring would contract inherited congenital malformations. In the event that this becomes the result, future generations would be at risk of catching the same genetic defects. As a product of incestuous inbreeding, an offspring has a tendency to develop recessive disorders such as mental retardation, deaf-mutism, congenital ichthyosis, retinitis pigmentosa, adiposogenital syndrome, and homocystinuria. Previous studies show that more than half of the children born out of incest acquire some abnormality. The reason behind this is that there in an increase in homozygosity in the offspring’s genes, which means that there would be â€Å"the same allele at the same locus on both members of a chromosome pair† (â€Å"Incest,† n. d. ). In other words, if the parents of the child belong to the same family, there is a greater tendency for the child to get a defective gene from both parents. Because of this, it is assumed that there is a specific biological mechanism which prevents species from engaging in incestuous inbreeding. In detail, this mechanism could be more easily described in a comparison between incestuous inbreeding and mating between beings of different blood. Every human being carries some defective genes which are masked in a recessive expression. When two people belong in the same family, for example, as in the case of siblings, half of their genes are identical as they are from the same parents. This means that when they mate, there is a greater likelihood that the defective gene would be expressed in their offspring. However, for two people of no blood relation to each other, there isn’t any identical gene which means that it would be less likely for a genetic defect to be developed in their offspring. This biological constraint and medical risk is a consequence that incestuous inbreeding would bring. It would not only be harmful for the offspring because of the defects that would be acquired or a greater risk for mortality, nonetheless, it would also contribute to the deterioration of future generations. Finally, aside from these aforementioned medical considerations, it would also be appropriate to regard the psychological side effects as important in these situations. There are lots of cases which show that incest, especially those situations which could be considered as forms of abuse, result in psychological, mental, and emotional trauma. This probably might be because of the fact that it is established as a taboo and the behavior is a contradiction to that belief or attitude. Whatever the case may be, there would always be a negative outcome when two people engage in incestuous relations and inbreeding. References Children born as a result of incest. (1981). British Medical Journal Vol. 282. p. 250. Incest. (n. d. ) In Cambridge encyclopedia. Retrieved April 14, 2008, from http://encyclopedia. stateuniversity. com/pages/10516/incest. html The Columbia encyclopedia (10th ed. ). (2007). New York: Columbia University Press.

Causes for Japanese Film Remakes

Causes for Japanese Film Remakes Introduction Since the beginning of the 21st Century a new trend has become commonplace within the Hollywood horror genre, Japanese horror films are being purchased and remade for a new audience, removing the traditional underlying history and Americanising them for western viewers waiting for their next dose of fear and terror. In this dissertation I will explore the reasoning behind this influx of remakes, looking at the important roles people like Roy Lee and Vertigo Entertainment have played in their acceptance and successes. To do this I feel it is important to look at the state Hollywood horror was in before, and how films such as The Ring (2002) and The Grudge (2004) have changed things. As well as this I will look at the differences between J-Horror and its American counterpart, and how these have made them an appealing prospect for remaking. It will also be important for me to look at the academic theories behind remakes, and the different types of remake there are, using the work of Druxman, Leitch and Greenberg to try and help identify the different approaches used by Hollywood directors whilst tackling these projects. As well as investigating into why this has become so popular recently, and what examples there are in the past of similar situations arising, I’ll be attempting to predict how long this will last for, and the problems studios may encounter by doing it on a large scale. I will begin in Chapter One by introducing the work of Michael Druxman, Thomas Leitch and Harvey Roy Greenberg, summarising their writings on the topic of remakes and looking at how they each have different categories of them, depending on the new films style and the way it is released. I will look at Leitch’s theory of the â€Å"triangular relationship† (1990: 139) which helps to explain how remakes differ so much from other versions of adaptation. Along with these categories of remake I will attempt to give examples of different films which fit into the criteria, as well as relating them to the current trend of remaking J-Horror. In Chapter Two I will talk about the differences between Hollywood and Japanese horror styles, looking at both countries long histories in the genre, focussing on things such as folklore and local tradition, trying to discover why the two styles are so different. I will look at the origins and formation of the J-Horror style, along with the key films and directors associated with the movement. Before focussing on Hollywood’s history of remaking, and some of the reasons and thinking behind doing it, looking at films such as Yojimbo (1961) and Shichinin no samurai (Seven Samurai, 1954) as examples of this happening in the past. Chapter Three will be a case study based around Ringu (1998) and The Ring (2002), pointing out the differences and similarities between the two films. Through the use of illustrations I will identify important scenes where Gore Verbinski has either almost copied exactly or drastically altered the shot from Hideo Nakata’s original. I will try to relate my arguments and observations to other contemporary cases of J-Horror remakes, again talking about the cultural differences between the two countries and how in turn that has affected the look and feel of the two films. Finally I will conclude by looking at the future of remaking J-Horror, highlighting future films in development and how Hollywood is now exploiting new markets. I will summarise my findings from previous chapters and use them to try and predict how long this spell of remaking will last for and if it will continue to be as financially successful as it has been so far. Chapter One Categories of Remake Ever since the early days of Hollywood cinema films have been remade, reimagined and adapted for new, ever changing audiences. In most cases it has proven that if a film was successful the first time round a remake will be equally so. The producer or studio make the decision that the original story is still viable (Druxman: 1975: 13) and can once again make big money at the box office. This has led to this trend increasing rapidly over the last few decades, with fresh new material becoming harder to come by. Before I go into detail on the types of remakes and how they relate to the current trend of remaking Asian horror, I must clearly define what a remake actually is. A remake is much more than a film based on an earlier screenplay (Verevis: 2006: 1), as it can be broken down into even more definitions. The sequel/prequel, adaptation, homage, reimagining, film series and the retour aux sourced are all a type of remake (Delaney Potamitis: 2004: 1), with films falling under one of them. Leitch states that the reason remakes differ so much from other adaptations to a new media is due to the â€Å"triangular relationship† (Leitch: 1990: 139) they establish among themselves, the original film and the property in which both are based on. This has come about because typically producers of a remake pay no adaptation fees to the makers of the original film, but instead purchase adaptation rights from the authors of the based on property (Leitch: 1990: 139). This seems strange as it is the two films which will be competing against each other, often being found side by side on store shelves, and not the original property and the remade film (Leitch: 1990: 139). It is often the case that the original film benefits from the release of a remake, as it brings in a fresh audience who are often interested in watching the original film as well. In the case of Ringu, you can clearly see that the theatrical release of its remake caused its popularity to soar higher than ever before [fig 1.1] (pro.imdb.com). Many texts have been written regarding the subject of remaking film, and in particular looking at breaking the remake down into smaller more specific categories. The writings of Robert Eberwein, Michael Druxman, Harvey Roy Greenberg and Thomas Leitch, have defined multiple different types of remade film between them, from the wide and vague to the extremely specific. These books and essays can prove very helpful when comparing remade cinema, especially in trying to identify why the film in question has been remade, and the thinking behind it. I hope to use these definitions to help answer my own question of why there is such a high demand for westernising Japanese horror. In one of the first texts dedicated solely to the subject of the movie remake, Make It Again, Sam, Druxman sets out to answer three questions through the analysis of thirty three films and their remakes (1975: 9). These questions are â€Å"Why was the picture remade?†, â€Å"How was the remake different from the original as far as important story changes were concerned?† and â€Å"What was the critical reaction to the remake?† (Druxman: 1975: 9). When searching for a definition of a â€Å"remakeâ€Å" for his work Druxman decided that he would not take into account obvious sequels to films, and instead focus mainly on those that were based on a â€Å"common literary source† (1975: 9), such as an existing screenplay, novel, play, etc. Three major factors are described as driving â€Å"industry pragmatism† (Verevis: 2006: 5) in regards to Hollywood’s practice of remaking. Druxman argues that the first of these factors is that the studios’ decision to remake is a â€Å"voluntary one† (1975: 13) based on the fact that the script is still relevant today and could prove successful. However during the 1930s and 1940s, in the studio dominated era, they were forced to produce a certain amount of films every year (Druxman: 1975: 13). Producers found themselves with no alternative than to start using previously filmed movies as sources for new â€Å"B† and sometimes top-of-the-bill productions (Verevis: 2006: 6). These updated plots were essentially the same as their predecessor, with just the settings and characters being changed slightly. Druxman’s second point is that it was common practice for studios to purchase rights to plays, novels and stories, so that they could then produce multiple versions of these without giving the copyright holder additional payments (Verevis: 2006: 6). As Literary classics such as Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and The Three Musketeers where in the public domain, it meant that no initial payment would have to be paid for their dramatic rights (Verevis: 2006: 6). The final factor is simple economics; established films can be redone in order to exploit the ever changing production techniques and movie stars. That is why these old stories were, and will continue to be, constantly resurrected. If a studio has purchased the rights to something they will want to redo and release it as many times as possible in order to maximise their gain. Through Druxman’s definitions and in depth analysis of Hollywood remakes he comes up with three categories which he feels they can fall under; the direct, disguised and the non-remake (Druxman: 1975: 15). The direct remake category contains films that do not even attempt to hide the fact that they are based on earlier productions (Druxman: 1975: 15). Such productions may adopt a new title and make some changes to the narrative image (Verevis: 2006: 7), but it is basically the same film being remade, with not even the publicity campaigns hiding this fact (Druxman: 1975: 15). The main objective of these direct remakes is to draw in two types of cinema viewers. Those who have seen and enjoyed the original, and are curious about this new remake, and those who have heard good things about the original so want to view this version as the older is no longer in circulation (Druxman: 1975: 18). His second category, the disguised remake is a film which is either updated with little change, or completely retitled and then disguised, with the help of a new setting and original characters. (Verevis: 2006: 7). In either case though, the disguised remake doesn’t wish to draw attention to the fact that it’s not an original piece, instead just promoting itself as a normal film. Finally Druxman says there are non-remakes, films retaining the title of a well known story (Druxman: 1975: 15), as well as possibly referring to the name of a well known author, strictly for commercial purposes. Basically all the remake and the original share in common is the title, but the content is extremely different in each case (Verevis: 2006: 7). A perfect example of Druxman’s non-remake would be The Ring Two (2005) as the film shares the same name as its original (in its American release title at least), but that it pretty much where the similarities end. It is interesting to point out that the film is remade by Hideo Nakata, the director behind the original, clearly placing this remake within Robert Stams category of autocitation, in which a film maker remakes his/her own film (Verevis: 2006: 21). A further relevant example of this is Takashi Shimizu’s American film The Grudge a remake of his earlier Japanese language Ju-on: The Grudge (2003). In Harvey Roy Greenberg’s article â€Å"Raiders of the Lost Text: Remaking as Contested Homage in Always†he expands upon Druxman’s â€Å"commercially grounded† (Verevis: 2006: 8) groups and comes up with three categories which instead focus on the directors reasons for remaking a film. His categories center around the example of the romantic war fantasy A Guy Named Joe (1943) and its Steven Spielberg remake, Always (1989). Using this as an example of what Verevis translates as a â€Å"acknowledged, transformed remake† (2006: 9), with the film having huge changes made to the characters, location and general story telling. But still making sure to acknowledge the original, like in the case of Always a small mention is given in the credits. Much like Druxman he also names two other categories in which he feels remakes fall under. The acknowledged, close remake much like Druxman’s direct (1975:15) category, is when a remake completely replicates the original, with little to no change made to its narrative structure (Verevis: 2006: 9), and the unacknowledged, disguised remake is when both minor and major changes are made to the time, settings and characters. But the original version is not referred to and the audience are not informed of there even being one (Verevis: 2006: 9), similar to Druxman’s category of disguised remake. Thomas M. Leitch gives a much â€Å"more developed† (Verevis: 2006: 11) taxonomy of remakes. He claims that remakes seek to define themselves through either primary reference to the original film, or to the material both are adapted from, and there are four possible stances of remake that a film can fall under (Leitch: 1990: 142). The readaptation is the simplest of these stances, ignoring earlier cinematic adaptations in order to readapt an original literary property as faithfully as possible (Verevis: 2006: 12). The readaptations goal is â€Å"fidelity to the original text† (Leitch: 1990: 142), which it aims to translate as thoroughly as possible into the new film medium. Unlike the readaptation, the update competes directly with its literacy source, instead of seeking to subordinate itself to the essence of a literacy classic (Verevis: 2006: 12). They transform the original text through such ways as transposing it to a new setting, changing its values, or making the original seem dated, outmoded or irrelevant (Leitch: 1990: 143). Films such as these updates often display their â€Å"contradictory attitude towards the material† (Leitch: 1990: 143) through their titles and marketing, sometimes even using a tone which verges on parody. For perfect example of this would be Baz Luhrmann’s Romeo + Juliet (1996), a film which takes an established screenplay and changes its meaning, updating it for a new generation. The homage is a type of remake whose primary objective is not to disrespect and put down the original film, but celebrate and pay tribute to it (Leitch: 1990: 144). Much like the readaptation which seeks to direct the audience’s attention to its literacy source (Verevis: 2006: 13), the homage situates itself as a secondary text, with its only value depending on its relation to the original text they pay tribute to (Leitch: 1990: 144). Therefore the homage renounces any claims that it is better than its original and attempts to reintroduce films that are in danger of being lost and forgotten (Leitch: 1990: 144). Leitch’s final category, the true remake is the complete opposite to the homage, claiming that it is better than its original (Verevis: 2006: 13). It focuses on a cinematic original with an accommodating stance and seeks to update the original, making its more relevant to a new modern audience (Leitch: 1990: 145). More than any of the other categories it borrows largely from the unacknowledged film, instead of being a reinvisioning of a literacy text (Leitch: 1990: 145). As well as these three major taxonomies on remakes from Leitch, Druxman and Greenberg, Robert Eberwein has published an elaborate list, proposing fifteen individual categories, each with many subdivisions (Verevis: 2006: 11). Ranging from the obvious such as a silent film remade as a sound film (Eberwein: 1998: 28) to the much more specific, â€Å"A remake that changes the race of the main characters† (Eberwein: 1998: 30). His taxonomy doesn’t address the issue of film adaptations, (Eberwein: 1998: 31) but regardless is a comprehensive and extremely specific list of categories which film can easily be slotted into. Chapter Two Different Styles of Horror It’s fairly clear to see, even to the most casual of audiences that Hollywood and Asia have extremely different styles of horror cinema, focussing on very different aspects and using different techniques to produce an element of fear. The west has a long history of horror cinema, starting with the early gothic in films such as Todd Browning’s Dracula (1931) and James Whales’ Frankenstein (1931), before going through a more paranoid stage focussing on unease and a sense that things are not right in the world, such as John Carpenters Science Fiction horror The Thing (1982). In recent times though â€Å"horror has become the domain of the slasher movie† (Maher: 2005: 14), with the likes of Friday the 13th(1980), Halloween (1978) and A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) giving rise to a new genre, one which would reshape the future of horror for almost 20 years. Towards the end of the 20th century it had become the norm for horror cinema to be all about multiple grotesque killings, limited back-story and a very formulaic approach to making the films. With the audience expecting certain key things when watching a horror film, such as, big jumpy moments, psycho-killers who never quite die and conventions such as the â€Å"Final Girl†. As Gore Verbinski, director of The Ring puts it â€Å"slasher films contextualise the horror so you watch it, eat your popcorn, go through a few jumps, and then go out for dinner† (O’Toole: 2003: 93), it was no longer fresh and exciting in the way it was in the early 1980s. Wes Craven changed all this in 1996 with the first of his Scream trilogy, the ironic slasher movie has run out of â€Å"nudge-nudge and wink wink† (O’Toole: 2003: 93) and it was now time for a smarter type of horror, one which was very aware of its audience knowing the key conventions, and which would use this to its advantage. The Scream films make use of the previously subtle and covert intertextual references and transform them into a very overt, discursive act. The movie characters knowledge of the horror genre rivals that of this new very aware target audience, and no longer tries to patronise them and act oblivious, with even the rules of horror sequels being discussed in detail in the following Scream 2 (1997) and Scream 3 (2000). The dismantling and parody riddled approach to the slasher genre continued with the Scary Movie (2000) franchise, this time not just giving a smart alternative to current horror cinema but completely mocking every aspect of it. Although these films and there sequels did very well at the box office, they had done serious damage to the American horror genre (Braundu: 2005: 118), the age of the slasher genre was over and Hollywood studios needed to find a way to invent horror for a new audience. In 1998 â€Å"Japanese suspense maestro† (Maher: 2005: 14) Hideo Nakata’s small budget Japanese horror film Ringu had revived a stagnant genre for the country, and had become a â€Å"cinematic phenomenon† (O’Toole: 2003: 93) across Asia, quickly becoming the most successful horror film franchise in Japan’s history. (Arnold: 2002:16) The story of a mysterious video tape which kills everyone who watches it exactly one week later became an underground cult classic within the west (Maher: 2005: 14), providing a kind of deep unsettling horror which had never been seen before. The film is based largely on the book of the same name by Koji Suzuki, who has been dubbed â€Å"the Stephen King of Japan† (O’Toole: 2003: 93), which was published in 1991. Suzuki’s downbeat, everyday settings have proven to translate well into film, (Donald: 2005: 9) with another one of his books, Honogurai mizu no soko kara (Dark Water, 2002) from 1996 also being adapted and remade for an American audience. Roy Lee, arguably the best known go-between in the world of remakes (Frater Kay: 2003: 10) and one half of the new Vertigo Entertainment, was one of the first big name American film producer to watch Ringu and it was this viewing that triggered the start of the Asian remake boom. On Lee’s recommendation the film was watched by Dreamworks Production Executive Walter Parkes and by 7pm that same day they had â€Å"paid $1m for the remake† rights (Frater Kay: 2003: 10). The history of the Japanese horror film is arguably as big as that of Hollywood and the West’s. With its roots firmly set in folklore, myth and urban legend (Langford: 2005: 175) it has progressed from woodblock carvings, to Kabuki theatre and finally to motion picture cinema. The main premise of the horror is based around the ghost story, at least up until the late 20th century. Story’s known as Kaidan (literally translated to â€Å"tail of a strange apparition†) originating from the Edo and Meiji period where passed down from generation to generation, retold in an ever changing medium (Stamou: 2007). The average Japanese person is more inclined to believe in ghosts than not, due to the culture and the way they are constantly exposed to these tales of terror. They believe that spirits inhabit absolutely everything (Rucka: 2005) and because of this don’t regard them as enemies, but as just another thing which co-exists within their world (Kermode: 2005). As Walter Salles, director of Dark Water (2005) puts it, â€Å"they don’t question it the way we question it, it’s much more a part of their world† (Kermode: 2005). Due to the unquestioning of the paranormal and the Buddhist and ShintÃ…Â  religious followings they are much more acceptant to the idea of life after death. This view of life, death and the afterlife is the fundamental difference between Japanese horror and its western counterpart, and where all the other differences stem from (Rucka: 2005). As Hideo Nakata says, â€Å"when making horror films, the methods of describing the spirit world and the expression of horror are totally different between Japan and the West† (Kermode: 2005). As is common within the Japanese language there are names for multiple different types of ghost and spirit. The ghosts and demons of the ancient period tales where known as the Yurei (lean ghost), the Zashiki-warashi is a dead child’s ghost, like the character of Toshio in Ju-on: The Grudge. One of the most common kinds of ghost though is the OnryÃ…Â  (resentful spirit), a spirit trapped at Yomi (Japanese purgatory) who comes back to earth looking for revenge (Stamou: 2007). Although not limited to being female, such as Rentaro Mikuni’s husband character in Kwaidan (1964) for example, the majority of them are (Wilks: 2006). It is this image of the OnryÃ…Â  which comes to mind when you think of Japanese horror, the female spirit gowned in snow-white, with its long black hair obscuring its face. This is mainly due to the new wave of Japanese directors such as, Takashi Miike (Ôdishon, 1999), Hideo Nakata (Ringu), Takashi Shimizu (Ju-on: The Grudge) and Kiyoshi Kurosawa (Kairo, 2001) using it at every opportunity, making it as â€Å"iconic in horror cinema as the projectile-vomiting, spinning head† (Wilks: 2006). 1964 saw the release of what many regard as one of Japans greatest horrors, Kaidan (Kwaidan, 1964). Directed by Masaki Kobayashi and based on four short stories by author Lafcadio Hearn, it uses abstract use of lighting and sound, creatively staged and shot in vibrant colours (Rucka: 2005). Keiko Kishi’s performance as Yuki The Ice Maiden sparked such terror within the Japanese population, that now only the passing glimpse of the likes of Sadako in Ringu and Kayako in Ju-on: The Grudge ignite utmost fright, due to the accumulated cultural knowledge of this character (Wilks: 2006). After years of Japanese horror plodding along in a stale state, influenced more by American slashers than its own rich heritage, a young director called Norio Tsurta decided he had had enough and it was time for a change. Japan was no longer the fantastically safe country it once was, and the Japanese people were starting to feel the ills of the outside world encroaching on them (Lovgren: 2004), and this was starting to be shown through their cinema. Tsurta’s Honto ni atta kowai hanashi (Scary True Stories, 1991) was the first of these, providing through low budget production, the look, mood and style which would later be known as J-Horror (Rucka: 2005). The term J-Horror was originally coined as a cult fan term (Rucka: 2005) for the post Ringu horror cinema which was coming out of Japan, although now it is often wrongly used to define Japanese horror as a whole. This revitalised horror scene fronted largely by Hideo Nakata after the phenomenal success of his film Ringu, completely revived the Japanese horror scene and caught the eye of film fans and studios all around the world. The common theme within J-Horror is once again ghosts, OnryÃ…Â  and the supernatural, but other more violent torture based films can also be included under the banner, for example Takashi Miike’s Ôdishon (Audition). For the most part though the films were very similar in style and overall theme to each other, with the following being the most notable examples; Nakata’s Ringu, Kaosu (Chaos, 1999), Ringu 2 (1999) and Honogurai mizu no soko kara. Takashi Shimizu’s Ju-on: The Curse (2000), Ju-on: The Curse 2 (2000), Ju-on: The Grudge, Ju-on: The Grudge 2 (2003), Marebito (2004) and Rinne (Reincarnation, 2005). Kiyoshi Kurosawa’s Kyua (Cure, 1997), Kairo (Pulse, 2001) and Sakebi (Retribution, 2006), and Takashi Miike’s Chakushin ari (One Missed Call, 2004). The Japanese horror style has an â€Å"eerie ambient quality† (Maher: 14: 2005) about it which differs largely from its western counterpart. As noted previously, in the traditional Japanese horror movie the â€Å"past haunts the present, invariably taking the form of the supernatural† (Schneider and Williams: 6: 2005). Where, as director Rob Zombie (Halloween, 2007) points out, in American horror â€Å"you’ve gotta kill someone in the first five seconds† (Chaffin: 2005). J-Horror takes a very different approach to this, focussing on delivering heavy â€Å"atmosphere, nuance and ambiguity† (Chaffin: 2005), instead of raw grotesque gore, mainly due to the fact that the Japanese audience is much more tolerant of it (Phelan: 10: 2005). In Japanese horror films there’s much more of an acceptance towards the irrational and the unexplained (Lovgren: 2004). Nakata says that the ghost need do nothing more than â€Å"stand behind and stare at the main character† (Davies: 2005) to create fear amongst the audience, it all comes from sounds, shadows and suggestions, you don’t need â€Å"a 3D creature lopping people’s heads off† (Lovgren: 2004). Takashi Shimizu compares the current J-Horror style to films by American director John Carpenter, such as The Thing (1982) and Halloween. Saying that â€Å"just the suggestion of the presence of a ghost is frightening† (Dixon: 7: 2005), whereas Sarah Michelle-Gellar, star of The Grudge, describes Asian horror as being â€Å"much more beautiful, more poetic, leaving much more to the imagination† (Baughan: 78: 2005), a view which seems to be shared by many. Western horror plots normally evolve around the idea that the characters discover the cause of the horror and then destroy it, but J-Horror works very differently to this. As Stephen Susco, the writer in charge of translating Ju-on: The Grudge for the remake puts it, Asian horror is more â€Å"like a haunted house that follows you† (Kay: 7: 2004), there’s no limits or barriers to the horror. For example in Ringu where Sadako Yamamura climbs out of the television set, breaching any line which might keep you safe. In the west a ghost is often required to want something much more meaningful and have a deeper back-story, whereas â€Å"in Japan a ghost may simply want to terrify and destroy† (Phelan: 10: 2005). It’s the little differences like this which make these variations on the horror genre so different, where Hollywood mostly relies on over the top multiple sequences of death, Japan still has its roots firmly placed amongst the aesthetics of folklore, Japanese Noh and Kabuki theatre (McRoy: 214: 2006). Although history would suggest that Europe was the first stop of film makers and studio’s looking to remake a movie for a world audience, Japan has long been a â€Å"happy hunting ground for Hollywood remakers† (Shackleton Schilling: 2003: 17). First beginning in 1960 with The Magnificent Seven, John Sturges’ classic remake of the cult hit Shichinin no samurai, and then followed by Sergio Leone’s A Fistful of Dollars (1964), a remake of the Japanese film Yojimbo. In fact Yojimbo was remade once again in 1996 in the Bruce Willis lead crime drama Last Man Standing, a tribute to Akira Kurosawa’s screenplay that it was still deemed worthy of a remake over 30 years later. Literally the largest example of Hollywood remaking a Japanese movie though is Godzilla (1998), Roland Emmerich’s re-envisioning of the then twenty two film monster series, beginning in 1954 with Goijira (Godzilla). It was this film which became one of the first early examples of a foreign film becoming â€Å"Americanised†, even though it was given a (very limited) subtitled theatrical run it was still remade two years later as Godzilla, King of the Monsters! (1956), with numerous new scenes shot and inserted into the original Japanese film, completely changing the plot and removing any real trace that it was a foreign made production (godzylla.com). As Mike Macari, Fine Line’s Creative Executive and avid Asian film fanatic, states Hollywood has always had the ability to â€Å"import foreign ideas and re-export them to a world market† (Frater Kay: 2003: 9), remakes have always been a very important part of American film making, but in the last ten years this is becoming even more so. As the mainstream Hollywood audiences’ become bored and overexposed to the current market the studios are forced to look elsewhere for inspiration, Walter Parkes says that Hollywood’s â€Å"voracious appetite† (Frater Kay: 2003: 9) will look wherever it can for new material and inspiration. American children have been â€Å"growing up on Pokemon, Japanese anime and manga† (Frater Kay: 2003: 9) for the past ten years, which has meant that as they become adults they’ve become more accustomed to the Japanese style, whereas fifteen years ago they wouldn’t be so open to it. Roy Lee states that he looks for â€Å"something new and fresh in the story that will appeal to a wider audience† (Paquet: 2003: 15), as long as it has an original concept and several strong scenes Hollywood can see potential in it for a remake. â€Å"Hollywood is a machine† (Maher: 2005: 14) and has proven that it can translate even the most cultural specific film into a box office success. Chapter Three Case Study As previously mentioned Hideo Nakata’s Ringu became the first film associated with the style of movie which would later be described as J-Horror. It came up with a fresh and exciting approach to its genre which would not only be used as a template for its western remakes, but the stream of replicas which would follow it in Japan. In this chapter I will be looking at the film in much more detail, comparing and contrasting it to Gore Verbinski’s Hollywood remake The Ring, in an attempt to identify how truthful it stays to the original, which parts are changed and westernised, and why this is the case. Although I am using Ringu/The Ring as my main example, mainly due to the fact that it was the first contemporary case of remaking Japanese horror, I will try to relate my arguments and observations to other films and Causes for Japanese Film Remakes Causes for Japanese Film Remakes Introduction Since the beginning of the 21st Century a new trend has become commonplace within the Hollywood horror genre, Japanese horror films are being purchased and remade for a new audience, removing the traditional underlying history and Americanising them for western viewers waiting for their next dose of fear and terror. In this dissertation I will explore the reasoning behind this influx of remakes, looking at the important roles people like Roy Lee and Vertigo Entertainment have played in their acceptance and successes. To do this I feel it is important to look at the state Hollywood horror was in before, and how films such as The Ring (2002) and The Grudge (2004) have changed things. As well as this I will look at the differences between J-Horror and its American counterpart, and how these have made them an appealing prospect for remaking. It will also be important for me to look at the academic theories behind remakes, and the different types of remake there are, using the work of Druxman, Leitch and Greenberg to try and help identify the different approaches used by Hollywood directors whilst tackling these projects. As well as investigating into why this has become so popular recently, and what examples there are in the past of similar situations arising, I’ll be attempting to predict how long this will last for, and the problems studios may encounter by doing it on a large scale. I will begin in Chapter One by introducing the work of Michael Druxman, Thomas Leitch and Harvey Roy Greenberg, summarising their writings on the topic of remakes and looking at how they each have different categories of them, depending on the new films style and the way it is released. I will look at Leitch’s theory of the â€Å"triangular relationship† (1990: 139) which helps to explain how remakes differ so much from other versions of adaptation. Along with these categories of remake I will attempt to give examples of different films which fit into the criteria, as well as relating them to the current trend of remaking J-Horror. In Chapter Two I will talk about the differences between Hollywood and Japanese horror styles, looking at both countries long histories in the genre, focussing on things such as folklore and local tradition, trying to discover why the two styles are so different. I will look at the origins and formation of the J-Horror style, along with the key films and directors associated with the movement. Before focussing on Hollywood’s history of remaking, and some of the reasons and thinking behind doing it, looking at films such as Yojimbo (1961) and Shichinin no samurai (Seven Samurai, 1954) as examples of this happening in the past. Chapter Three will be a case study based around Ringu (1998) and The Ring (2002), pointing out the differences and similarities between the two films. Through the use of illustrations I will identify important scenes where Gore Verbinski has either almost copied exactly or drastically altered the shot from Hideo Nakata’s original. I will try to relate my arguments and observations to other contemporary cases of J-Horror remakes, again talking about the cultural differences between the two countries and how in turn that has affected the look and feel of the two films. Finally I will conclude by looking at the future of remaking J-Horror, highlighting future films in development and how Hollywood is now exploiting new markets. I will summarise my findings from previous chapters and use them to try and predict how long this spell of remaking will last for and if it will continue to be as financially successful as it has been so far. Chapter One Categories of Remake Ever since the early days of Hollywood cinema films have been remade, reimagined and adapted for new, ever changing audiences. In most cases it has proven that if a film was successful the first time round a remake will be equally so. The producer or studio make the decision that the original story is still viable (Druxman: 1975: 13) and can once again make big money at the box office. This has led to this trend increasing rapidly over the last few decades, with fresh new material becoming harder to come by. Before I go into detail on the types of remakes and how they relate to the current trend of remaking Asian horror, I must clearly define what a remake actually is. A remake is much more than a film based on an earlier screenplay (Verevis: 2006: 1), as it can be broken down into even more definitions. The sequel/prequel, adaptation, homage, reimagining, film series and the retour aux sourced are all a type of remake (Delaney Potamitis: 2004: 1), with films falling under one of them. Leitch states that the reason remakes differ so much from other adaptations to a new media is due to the â€Å"triangular relationship† (Leitch: 1990: 139) they establish among themselves, the original film and the property in which both are based on. This has come about because typically producers of a remake pay no adaptation fees to the makers of the original film, but instead purchase adaptation rights from the authors of the based on property (Leitch: 1990: 139). This seems strange as it is the two films which will be competing against each other, often being found side by side on store shelves, and not the original property and the remade film (Leitch: 1990: 139). It is often the case that the original film benefits from the release of a remake, as it brings in a fresh audience who are often interested in watching the original film as well. In the case of Ringu, you can clearly see that the theatrical release of its remake caused its popularity to soar higher than ever before [fig 1.1] (pro.imdb.com). Many texts have been written regarding the subject of remaking film, and in particular looking at breaking the remake down into smaller more specific categories. The writings of Robert Eberwein, Michael Druxman, Harvey Roy Greenberg and Thomas Leitch, have defined multiple different types of remade film between them, from the wide and vague to the extremely specific. These books and essays can prove very helpful when comparing remade cinema, especially in trying to identify why the film in question has been remade, and the thinking behind it. I hope to use these definitions to help answer my own question of why there is such a high demand for westernising Japanese horror. In one of the first texts dedicated solely to the subject of the movie remake, Make It Again, Sam, Druxman sets out to answer three questions through the analysis of thirty three films and their remakes (1975: 9). These questions are â€Å"Why was the picture remade?†, â€Å"How was the remake different from the original as far as important story changes were concerned?† and â€Å"What was the critical reaction to the remake?† (Druxman: 1975: 9). When searching for a definition of a â€Å"remakeâ€Å" for his work Druxman decided that he would not take into account obvious sequels to films, and instead focus mainly on those that were based on a â€Å"common literary source† (1975: 9), such as an existing screenplay, novel, play, etc. Three major factors are described as driving â€Å"industry pragmatism† (Verevis: 2006: 5) in regards to Hollywood’s practice of remaking. Druxman argues that the first of these factors is that the studios’ decision to remake is a â€Å"voluntary one† (1975: 13) based on the fact that the script is still relevant today and could prove successful. However during the 1930s and 1940s, in the studio dominated era, they were forced to produce a certain amount of films every year (Druxman: 1975: 13). Producers found themselves with no alternative than to start using previously filmed movies as sources for new â€Å"B† and sometimes top-of-the-bill productions (Verevis: 2006: 6). These updated plots were essentially the same as their predecessor, with just the settings and characters being changed slightly. Druxman’s second point is that it was common practice for studios to purchase rights to plays, novels and stories, so that they could then produce multiple versions of these without giving the copyright holder additional payments (Verevis: 2006: 6). As Literary classics such as Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and The Three Musketeers where in the public domain, it meant that no initial payment would have to be paid for their dramatic rights (Verevis: 2006: 6). The final factor is simple economics; established films can be redone in order to exploit the ever changing production techniques and movie stars. That is why these old stories were, and will continue to be, constantly resurrected. If a studio has purchased the rights to something they will want to redo and release it as many times as possible in order to maximise their gain. Through Druxman’s definitions and in depth analysis of Hollywood remakes he comes up with three categories which he feels they can fall under; the direct, disguised and the non-remake (Druxman: 1975: 15). The direct remake category contains films that do not even attempt to hide the fact that they are based on earlier productions (Druxman: 1975: 15). Such productions may adopt a new title and make some changes to the narrative image (Verevis: 2006: 7), but it is basically the same film being remade, with not even the publicity campaigns hiding this fact (Druxman: 1975: 15). The main objective of these direct remakes is to draw in two types of cinema viewers. Those who have seen and enjoyed the original, and are curious about this new remake, and those who have heard good things about the original so want to view this version as the older is no longer in circulation (Druxman: 1975: 18). His second category, the disguised remake is a film which is either updated with little change, or completely retitled and then disguised, with the help of a new setting and original characters. (Verevis: 2006: 7). In either case though, the disguised remake doesn’t wish to draw attention to the fact that it’s not an original piece, instead just promoting itself as a normal film. Finally Druxman says there are non-remakes, films retaining the title of a well known story (Druxman: 1975: 15), as well as possibly referring to the name of a well known author, strictly for commercial purposes. Basically all the remake and the original share in common is the title, but the content is extremely different in each case (Verevis: 2006: 7). A perfect example of Druxman’s non-remake would be The Ring Two (2005) as the film shares the same name as its original (in its American release title at least), but that it pretty much where the similarities end. It is interesting to point out that the film is remade by Hideo Nakata, the director behind the original, clearly placing this remake within Robert Stams category of autocitation, in which a film maker remakes his/her own film (Verevis: 2006: 21). A further relevant example of this is Takashi Shimizu’s American film The Grudge a remake of his earlier Japanese language Ju-on: The Grudge (2003). In Harvey Roy Greenberg’s article â€Å"Raiders of the Lost Text: Remaking as Contested Homage in Always†he expands upon Druxman’s â€Å"commercially grounded† (Verevis: 2006: 8) groups and comes up with three categories which instead focus on the directors reasons for remaking a film. His categories center around the example of the romantic war fantasy A Guy Named Joe (1943) and its Steven Spielberg remake, Always (1989). Using this as an example of what Verevis translates as a â€Å"acknowledged, transformed remake† (2006: 9), with the film having huge changes made to the characters, location and general story telling. But still making sure to acknowledge the original, like in the case of Always a small mention is given in the credits. Much like Druxman he also names two other categories in which he feels remakes fall under. The acknowledged, close remake much like Druxman’s direct (1975:15) category, is when a remake completely replicates the original, with little to no change made to its narrative structure (Verevis: 2006: 9), and the unacknowledged, disguised remake is when both minor and major changes are made to the time, settings and characters. But the original version is not referred to and the audience are not informed of there even being one (Verevis: 2006: 9), similar to Druxman’s category of disguised remake. Thomas M. Leitch gives a much â€Å"more developed† (Verevis: 2006: 11) taxonomy of remakes. He claims that remakes seek to define themselves through either primary reference to the original film, or to the material both are adapted from, and there are four possible stances of remake that a film can fall under (Leitch: 1990: 142). The readaptation is the simplest of these stances, ignoring earlier cinematic adaptations in order to readapt an original literary property as faithfully as possible (Verevis: 2006: 12). The readaptations goal is â€Å"fidelity to the original text† (Leitch: 1990: 142), which it aims to translate as thoroughly as possible into the new film medium. Unlike the readaptation, the update competes directly with its literacy source, instead of seeking to subordinate itself to the essence of a literacy classic (Verevis: 2006: 12). They transform the original text through such ways as transposing it to a new setting, changing its values, or making the original seem dated, outmoded or irrelevant (Leitch: 1990: 143). Films such as these updates often display their â€Å"contradictory attitude towards the material† (Leitch: 1990: 143) through their titles and marketing, sometimes even using a tone which verges on parody. For perfect example of this would be Baz Luhrmann’s Romeo + Juliet (1996), a film which takes an established screenplay and changes its meaning, updating it for a new generation. The homage is a type of remake whose primary objective is not to disrespect and put down the original film, but celebrate and pay tribute to it (Leitch: 1990: 144). Much like the readaptation which seeks to direct the audience’s attention to its literacy source (Verevis: 2006: 13), the homage situates itself as a secondary text, with its only value depending on its relation to the original text they pay tribute to (Leitch: 1990: 144). Therefore the homage renounces any claims that it is better than its original and attempts to reintroduce films that are in danger of being lost and forgotten (Leitch: 1990: 144). Leitch’s final category, the true remake is the complete opposite to the homage, claiming that it is better than its original (Verevis: 2006: 13). It focuses on a cinematic original with an accommodating stance and seeks to update the original, making its more relevant to a new modern audience (Leitch: 1990: 145). More than any of the other categories it borrows largely from the unacknowledged film, instead of being a reinvisioning of a literacy text (Leitch: 1990: 145). As well as these three major taxonomies on remakes from Leitch, Druxman and Greenberg, Robert Eberwein has published an elaborate list, proposing fifteen individual categories, each with many subdivisions (Verevis: 2006: 11). Ranging from the obvious such as a silent film remade as a sound film (Eberwein: 1998: 28) to the much more specific, â€Å"A remake that changes the race of the main characters† (Eberwein: 1998: 30). His taxonomy doesn’t address the issue of film adaptations, (Eberwein: 1998: 31) but regardless is a comprehensive and extremely specific list of categories which film can easily be slotted into. Chapter Two Different Styles of Horror It’s fairly clear to see, even to the most casual of audiences that Hollywood and Asia have extremely different styles of horror cinema, focussing on very different aspects and using different techniques to produce an element of fear. The west has a long history of horror cinema, starting with the early gothic in films such as Todd Browning’s Dracula (1931) and James Whales’ Frankenstein (1931), before going through a more paranoid stage focussing on unease and a sense that things are not right in the world, such as John Carpenters Science Fiction horror The Thing (1982). In recent times though â€Å"horror has become the domain of the slasher movie† (Maher: 2005: 14), with the likes of Friday the 13th(1980), Halloween (1978) and A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) giving rise to a new genre, one which would reshape the future of horror for almost 20 years. Towards the end of the 20th century it had become the norm for horror cinema to be all about multiple grotesque killings, limited back-story and a very formulaic approach to making the films. With the audience expecting certain key things when watching a horror film, such as, big jumpy moments, psycho-killers who never quite die and conventions such as the â€Å"Final Girl†. As Gore Verbinski, director of The Ring puts it â€Å"slasher films contextualise the horror so you watch it, eat your popcorn, go through a few jumps, and then go out for dinner† (O’Toole: 2003: 93), it was no longer fresh and exciting in the way it was in the early 1980s. Wes Craven changed all this in 1996 with the first of his Scream trilogy, the ironic slasher movie has run out of â€Å"nudge-nudge and wink wink† (O’Toole: 2003: 93) and it was now time for a smarter type of horror, one which was very aware of its audience knowing the key conventions, and which would use this to its advantage. The Scream films make use of the previously subtle and covert intertextual references and transform them into a very overt, discursive act. The movie characters knowledge of the horror genre rivals that of this new very aware target audience, and no longer tries to patronise them and act oblivious, with even the rules of horror sequels being discussed in detail in the following Scream 2 (1997) and Scream 3 (2000). The dismantling and parody riddled approach to the slasher genre continued with the Scary Movie (2000) franchise, this time not just giving a smart alternative to current horror cinema but completely mocking every aspect of it. Although these films and there sequels did very well at the box office, they had done serious damage to the American horror genre (Braundu: 2005: 118), the age of the slasher genre was over and Hollywood studios needed to find a way to invent horror for a new audience. In 1998 â€Å"Japanese suspense maestro† (Maher: 2005: 14) Hideo Nakata’s small budget Japanese horror film Ringu had revived a stagnant genre for the country, and had become a â€Å"cinematic phenomenon† (O’Toole: 2003: 93) across Asia, quickly becoming the most successful horror film franchise in Japan’s history. (Arnold: 2002:16) The story of a mysterious video tape which kills everyone who watches it exactly one week later became an underground cult classic within the west (Maher: 2005: 14), providing a kind of deep unsettling horror which had never been seen before. The film is based largely on the book of the same name by Koji Suzuki, who has been dubbed â€Å"the Stephen King of Japan† (O’Toole: 2003: 93), which was published in 1991. Suzuki’s downbeat, everyday settings have proven to translate well into film, (Donald: 2005: 9) with another one of his books, Honogurai mizu no soko kara (Dark Water, 2002) from 1996 also being adapted and remade for an American audience. Roy Lee, arguably the best known go-between in the world of remakes (Frater Kay: 2003: 10) and one half of the new Vertigo Entertainment, was one of the first big name American film producer to watch Ringu and it was this viewing that triggered the start of the Asian remake boom. On Lee’s recommendation the film was watched by Dreamworks Production Executive Walter Parkes and by 7pm that same day they had â€Å"paid $1m for the remake† rights (Frater Kay: 2003: 10). The history of the Japanese horror film is arguably as big as that of Hollywood and the West’s. With its roots firmly set in folklore, myth and urban legend (Langford: 2005: 175) it has progressed from woodblock carvings, to Kabuki theatre and finally to motion picture cinema. The main premise of the horror is based around the ghost story, at least up until the late 20th century. Story’s known as Kaidan (literally translated to â€Å"tail of a strange apparition†) originating from the Edo and Meiji period where passed down from generation to generation, retold in an ever changing medium (Stamou: 2007). The average Japanese person is more inclined to believe in ghosts than not, due to the culture and the way they are constantly exposed to these tales of terror. They believe that spirits inhabit absolutely everything (Rucka: 2005) and because of this don’t regard them as enemies, but as just another thing which co-exists within their world (Kermode: 2005). As Walter Salles, director of Dark Water (2005) puts it, â€Å"they don’t question it the way we question it, it’s much more a part of their world† (Kermode: 2005). Due to the unquestioning of the paranormal and the Buddhist and ShintÃ…Â  religious followings they are much more acceptant to the idea of life after death. This view of life, death and the afterlife is the fundamental difference between Japanese horror and its western counterpart, and where all the other differences stem from (Rucka: 2005). As Hideo Nakata says, â€Å"when making horror films, the methods of describing the spirit world and the expression of horror are totally different between Japan and the West† (Kermode: 2005). As is common within the Japanese language there are names for multiple different types of ghost and spirit. The ghosts and demons of the ancient period tales where known as the Yurei (lean ghost), the Zashiki-warashi is a dead child’s ghost, like the character of Toshio in Ju-on: The Grudge. One of the most common kinds of ghost though is the OnryÃ…Â  (resentful spirit), a spirit trapped at Yomi (Japanese purgatory) who comes back to earth looking for revenge (Stamou: 2007). Although not limited to being female, such as Rentaro Mikuni’s husband character in Kwaidan (1964) for example, the majority of them are (Wilks: 2006). It is this image of the OnryÃ…Â  which comes to mind when you think of Japanese horror, the female spirit gowned in snow-white, with its long black hair obscuring its face. This is mainly due to the new wave of Japanese directors such as, Takashi Miike (Ôdishon, 1999), Hideo Nakata (Ringu), Takashi Shimizu (Ju-on: The Grudge) and Kiyoshi Kurosawa (Kairo, 2001) using it at every opportunity, making it as â€Å"iconic in horror cinema as the projectile-vomiting, spinning head† (Wilks: 2006). 1964 saw the release of what many regard as one of Japans greatest horrors, Kaidan (Kwaidan, 1964). Directed by Masaki Kobayashi and based on four short stories by author Lafcadio Hearn, it uses abstract use of lighting and sound, creatively staged and shot in vibrant colours (Rucka: 2005). Keiko Kishi’s performance as Yuki The Ice Maiden sparked such terror within the Japanese population, that now only the passing glimpse of the likes of Sadako in Ringu and Kayako in Ju-on: The Grudge ignite utmost fright, due to the accumulated cultural knowledge of this character (Wilks: 2006). After years of Japanese horror plodding along in a stale state, influenced more by American slashers than its own rich heritage, a young director called Norio Tsurta decided he had had enough and it was time for a change. Japan was no longer the fantastically safe country it once was, and the Japanese people were starting to feel the ills of the outside world encroaching on them (Lovgren: 2004), and this was starting to be shown through their cinema. Tsurta’s Honto ni atta kowai hanashi (Scary True Stories, 1991) was the first of these, providing through low budget production, the look, mood and style which would later be known as J-Horror (Rucka: 2005). The term J-Horror was originally coined as a cult fan term (Rucka: 2005) for the post Ringu horror cinema which was coming out of Japan, although now it is often wrongly used to define Japanese horror as a whole. This revitalised horror scene fronted largely by Hideo Nakata after the phenomenal success of his film Ringu, completely revived the Japanese horror scene and caught the eye of film fans and studios all around the world. The common theme within J-Horror is once again ghosts, OnryÃ…Â  and the supernatural, but other more violent torture based films can also be included under the banner, for example Takashi Miike’s Ôdishon (Audition). For the most part though the films were very similar in style and overall theme to each other, with the following being the most notable examples; Nakata’s Ringu, Kaosu (Chaos, 1999), Ringu 2 (1999) and Honogurai mizu no soko kara. Takashi Shimizu’s Ju-on: The Curse (2000), Ju-on: The Curse 2 (2000), Ju-on: The Grudge, Ju-on: The Grudge 2 (2003), Marebito (2004) and Rinne (Reincarnation, 2005). Kiyoshi Kurosawa’s Kyua (Cure, 1997), Kairo (Pulse, 2001) and Sakebi (Retribution, 2006), and Takashi Miike’s Chakushin ari (One Missed Call, 2004). The Japanese horror style has an â€Å"eerie ambient quality† (Maher: 14: 2005) about it which differs largely from its western counterpart. As noted previously, in the traditional Japanese horror movie the â€Å"past haunts the present, invariably taking the form of the supernatural† (Schneider and Williams: 6: 2005). Where, as director Rob Zombie (Halloween, 2007) points out, in American horror â€Å"you’ve gotta kill someone in the first five seconds† (Chaffin: 2005). J-Horror takes a very different approach to this, focussing on delivering heavy â€Å"atmosphere, nuance and ambiguity† (Chaffin: 2005), instead of raw grotesque gore, mainly due to the fact that the Japanese audience is much more tolerant of it (Phelan: 10: 2005). In Japanese horror films there’s much more of an acceptance towards the irrational and the unexplained (Lovgren: 2004). Nakata says that the ghost need do nothing more than â€Å"stand behind and stare at the main character† (Davies: 2005) to create fear amongst the audience, it all comes from sounds, shadows and suggestions, you don’t need â€Å"a 3D creature lopping people’s heads off† (Lovgren: 2004). Takashi Shimizu compares the current J-Horror style to films by American director John Carpenter, such as The Thing (1982) and Halloween. Saying that â€Å"just the suggestion of the presence of a ghost is frightening† (Dixon: 7: 2005), whereas Sarah Michelle-Gellar, star of The Grudge, describes Asian horror as being â€Å"much more beautiful, more poetic, leaving much more to the imagination† (Baughan: 78: 2005), a view which seems to be shared by many. Western horror plots normally evolve around the idea that the characters discover the cause of the horror and then destroy it, but J-Horror works very differently to this. As Stephen Susco, the writer in charge of translating Ju-on: The Grudge for the remake puts it, Asian horror is more â€Å"like a haunted house that follows you† (Kay: 7: 2004), there’s no limits or barriers to the horror. For example in Ringu where Sadako Yamamura climbs out of the television set, breaching any line which might keep you safe. In the west a ghost is often required to want something much more meaningful and have a deeper back-story, whereas â€Å"in Japan a ghost may simply want to terrify and destroy† (Phelan: 10: 2005). It’s the little differences like this which make these variations on the horror genre so different, where Hollywood mostly relies on over the top multiple sequences of death, Japan still has its roots firmly placed amongst the aesthetics of folklore, Japanese Noh and Kabuki theatre (McRoy: 214: 2006). Although history would suggest that Europe was the first stop of film makers and studio’s looking to remake a movie for a world audience, Japan has long been a â€Å"happy hunting ground for Hollywood remakers† (Shackleton Schilling: 2003: 17). First beginning in 1960 with The Magnificent Seven, John Sturges’ classic remake of the cult hit Shichinin no samurai, and then followed by Sergio Leone’s A Fistful of Dollars (1964), a remake of the Japanese film Yojimbo. In fact Yojimbo was remade once again in 1996 in the Bruce Willis lead crime drama Last Man Standing, a tribute to Akira Kurosawa’s screenplay that it was still deemed worthy of a remake over 30 years later. Literally the largest example of Hollywood remaking a Japanese movie though is Godzilla (1998), Roland Emmerich’s re-envisioning of the then twenty two film monster series, beginning in 1954 with Goijira (Godzilla). It was this film which became one of the first early examples of a foreign film becoming â€Å"Americanised†, even though it was given a (very limited) subtitled theatrical run it was still remade two years later as Godzilla, King of the Monsters! (1956), with numerous new scenes shot and inserted into the original Japanese film, completely changing the plot and removing any real trace that it was a foreign made production (godzylla.com). As Mike Macari, Fine Line’s Creative Executive and avid Asian film fanatic, states Hollywood has always had the ability to â€Å"import foreign ideas and re-export them to a world market† (Frater Kay: 2003: 9), remakes have always been a very important part of American film making, but in the last ten years this is becoming even more so. As the mainstream Hollywood audiences’ become bored and overexposed to the current market the studios are forced to look elsewhere for inspiration, Walter Parkes says that Hollywood’s â€Å"voracious appetite† (Frater Kay: 2003: 9) will look wherever it can for new material and inspiration. American children have been â€Å"growing up on Pokemon, Japanese anime and manga† (Frater Kay: 2003: 9) for the past ten years, which has meant that as they become adults they’ve become more accustomed to the Japanese style, whereas fifteen years ago they wouldn’t be so open to it. Roy Lee states that he looks for â€Å"something new and fresh in the story that will appeal to a wider audience† (Paquet: 2003: 15), as long as it has an original concept and several strong scenes Hollywood can see potential in it for a remake. â€Å"Hollywood is a machine† (Maher: 2005: 14) and has proven that it can translate even the most cultural specific film into a box office success. Chapter Three Case Study As previously mentioned Hideo Nakata’s Ringu became the first film associated with the style of movie which would later be described as J-Horror. It came up with a fresh and exciting approach to its genre which would not only be used as a template for its western remakes, but the stream of replicas which would follow it in Japan. In this chapter I will be looking at the film in much more detail, comparing and contrasting it to Gore Verbinski’s Hollywood remake The Ring, in an attempt to identify how truthful it stays to the original, which parts are changed and westernised, and why this is the case. Although I am using Ringu/The Ring as my main example, mainly due to the fact that it was the first contemporary case of remaking Japanese horror, I will try to relate my arguments and observations to other films and